Research Summaries & White Papers
This service is designed for clients who need the most relevant current evidence collected, analyzed, and summarized. Often the goal is to inform decision-making or to educate an internal team. Writing is unbiased, accurate, and complete, in a format that is clean and easy to digest. It highlights mechanisms, outcomes, limitations, or tailored to your objectives.
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Comprehensive literature review and analysis
Interpretation of primary scientific studies
Clear summaries of biological mechanisms and outcomes
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Medical and wellness brands
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Writing Samples
The excerpts here reflect a range of projects written for different audiences and objectives. Projects don’t always fit neatly into one category. That’s expected.
We design an approach together around your project goals.
Red Light Therapy(RLT) and Photobiomodulation(PBM): Mechanisms, Efficacy, and Protocols
Mechanisms
Chromophore vs Photoacceptor
The first law of photobiology says that photons must be absorbed by a molecule in the cell to have any biological effect. This molecule can be a chromophore or a photoacceptor. Melanin, hemoglobin and water are the main chromophores in skin. They absorb light and convert it into heat.
PBM involves photoacceptors, which are molecules that absorb light, causing a chemical reaction.
COX
The main photoacceptor targeted in PBM is cytochrome c oxidase (CCO or COX). COX is a component of the electron transport chain in mitochondria. Photon absorption by COX increases cellular respiration, and therefore increases ATP, and the cell’s ability to do work.
The leading hypothesis to explain exactly how light increases CCO enzyme activity, is that nitric oxide, which is known to bind to CCO and inhibit respiration, can be displaced by a photon of red or NIR light.
COX has two absorption bands, in the RL (665 nm) and in the NIR (810 nm) regions.
The skin has an optical wavelength window (600–1300 nm) in which melanin, hemoglobin, and water absorption coefficients are the smallest. Within this optical window, RL and IRA light is absorbed by COX to trigger non-thermal photobiomodulatory effects.
Wavelengths
PBM efficacy depends on the parameters of the treating light, including wavelength, fluence (J/cm2), power density (W/cm2, or J/s/cm2), treatment area, treatment duration, the distance of the light source from the treatment area, and pulse mode.
The optical properties of the skin or tissue being treated will affect the outcome. Light is scattered by keratin and melanosomes in the epidermis, and collagen in the dermis, reducing the amount that is absorbed. Short wavelengths scatter more than longer wavelengths.
Estimated penetration depth:
633 nm RL: 1 to 3 mm
810 nm NIR: 2 to 10 mm
890 nm NIR: 5 to 15 mm
1072 nm NIR: 5-10 mm
The deepest penetration is achieved by NIR at around 810 nm. Depth of penetration is directly proportional to wavelength, but also wavelength is inversely proportional to power. Longer wavelengths start to become absorbed by water,